Historically, ADHD was described mainly in school-age boys ( Still, 2006). Although ADHD carries the stigma of being a consequence of modern lifestyle, the first mentioning of the syndrome dates back to the late 18th century ( Faraone et al., 2015). The clinical disorder is defined by age-inappropriate levels of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity interfering with normal development, or functioning, of a person. We encourage large-scale research efforts to overcome those knowledge gaps through appropriately granular longitudinal studies.Īttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that typically starts during childhood or early adolescence and is thought to follow a trait-like course. We conclude that a severe lack of knowledge on lifespan aspects in ADHD still exists for nearly every aspect reviewed. ![]() Also, we summarise current knowledge and important unresolved issues on biological factors underlying different ADHD trajectories. In this selective review, we summarise current knowledge of the long-term course of ADHD, with an emphasis on clinical symptom and cognitive trajectories, treatment effects over the lifespan, and the development of comorbidities. These facts call for a lifespan perspective on ADHD from childhood to old age. Likewise, the development of comorbid disorders cannot be foreseen early on, hampering preventive measures. Available evidence to date is poor and largely inconsistent with regard to the predictors of persistence versus remittance. However, course and symptoms of the disorder and the comorbidities may fluctuate and change over time, and even age of onset in childhood has recently been questioned. Both in childhood and adulthood, ADHD is characterised by substantial comorbidity including substance use, depression, anxiety, and accidents. In recent decades, it has been appreciated that in a substantial number of cases the disorder does not remit in puberty, but persists into adulthood. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is highly heritable and the most common neurodevelopmental disorder in childhood.
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